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GREENPEACE bermula dari sekelompok kecil orang yang memutuskan untuk bersama-sama memprotes pengujian nuklir di Amchitka, lepas pantai bagian barat Alaska. Setelah itu mereka melanjutkankan untuk membentuk GREENPEACE dan kemudian melakukan kampanye dengan mengutamakan isu lingkungan. Salah satu prinsip dasar GREENPEACE adalah "bearing witness" - atau menjadi saksi dan merekam pengrusakan lingkungan. Prinsip aksi langsung ini bersama dengan konfrontasi damai merupakan patokan dari tiap kampanye GREENPEACE.

Asia Tenggara sangat berarti bagi masa depan kelestarian planet bumi. Warisan kekayaan alami yang ada di wilayah ini patut diperjuangkan kelestariannya. Walau demikian, seiring bertumbuhnya sektor ekonomi dan industri secara pesat dalam 30 tahun terakhir ini juga mengakibatkan kerusakan lingkungan yang cukup besar. Dampak lingkungan di wilayah ini juga meluas ke luar batas-batas negara Asia Tenggara. Degradasi lingkungan yang parah telah dialami seantero Asia Tenggara. Disamping krisis keuangan yang melanda Asia belum lama ini, polusi dan penghancuran sumber daya alam semakin parah, sementara perusahaan-perusahaan multinasional dan negara-negara industri mengarahkan wilayah ini untuk ekspansi operasi dan teknologi mereka yang merusak lingkungan. Yang semakin memperparah masalah ini adalah kurangnya kesadaran masyarakat Asia mengenai kerusakan lingkungan dan lemahnya mekanisme demokrasi untuk memperkuat masyarakat dalam mempengaruhi pengambilan keputusan. Melihat pentingnya potensi pembangunan dan ancaman di wilayah ini, dan dalam rangka konsolidasi dan pengembangan kampanyenya di Asia Tenggara, Greenpeace meningkatkan kegiatannya di wilayah ini.

Greenpeace sudah banyak bekerja di banyak wilayah di Asia. Pekerjaan kami di wilayah ini termasuk menghentikan importasi limbah berbahaya, menentang pengiriman radioaktif, berkampanye melawan terhadap pembinasaan hutan, melobi pemerintah mengenai isu-isu energi berkelanjutan dan menyoroti bahaya limbah pembakaran. Seringkali bersama dengan kelompok-kelompok lokal lainnya, Greenpeace telah menggalang kampanye sukses di Filipina, Taiwan, India, dan Indonesia. Kami telah berkomitmen untuk mengembangkan keberadaan kami di Asia pada akhir tahun 80an dan awal 90an, dan Greenpeace membuka kantor pertamanya di Jepang (1989) dan kemudian di China (1997). Penjajakan awal juga dilakukan di Asia Tenggara dengan fokus utama pada Indonesia dan Filipina.

Asia Tenggara merupakan posisi kunci untuk menentukan keamanan lingkungan global. Selama 30 tahun terakhir, Greenpeace telah suskes berkampanye di negara-negara industri untuk mengurangi dan menghapuskan polusi dan degradasi lingkungan. Tetapi, usaha-usaha dan capaian ini dapat dengan mudah diputarbalikkan pada saat perusahaan-perusahaan multinasional tersebut tetap mengekspor teknologi kotor yang mengakibatkan penurunan dampak lingkungan di wilayah ini. Dengan demikian, setelah penjajakan bertahun-tahun dan berkampanye di negara-negara kunci, akhirnya Greenpeace berhasil membuka kantor di wilayah ini. Greenpeace Asia Tenggara sercara resmi didirikan pada tanggal 1 Maret, tahun 2000.

Misi Greenpeace Asia Tenggara

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Mengekspos dan menghentian kejahatan lingkungan,

Mengedepankan pembangunan bersih. "

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Sriwijaya

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Srivijaya ← ← 7th century–13th century → The maximum extent of Srivijayan Empire around 8th century with series of Srivijayan expeditions and conquest Capital Palembang, Jambi, Chaiya Language(s) Old Malay, Sanskrit Religion Buddhism, Hinduism Government Monarchy Maharaja - Circa 683 Jayanasa - Circa 775 Dharmasetu - Circa 792 Samaratunga - Circa 835 Balaputra - Circa 988 Sri Culamanivarmadeva History - Dapunta Hyang's expedition and expansion, (Kedukan Bukit Inscription) 7th century - Singhasari conquest in 1288, Majapahit put an end to Srivijayan rebellion in 1377 13th century Currency Native gold and silver coins

This article is part of the History of Indonesia series
See also: Timeline of Indonesian History
Prehistory
Early kingdoms
Tarumanagara (358-669)
Srivijaya (7th to 13th centuries)
Sailendra (8th to 9th centuries)
Sunda Kingdom (669-1579)
Mataram Kingdom (752–1045)
Kediri (1045–1221)
Singhasari (1222–1292)
Majapahit (1293–1500)
The rise of Muslim states
The spread of Islam (1200–1600)
Malacca Sultanate (1400–1511)
Sultanate of Demak (1475–1518)
Aceh Sultanate (1496–1903)
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Mataram Sultanate (1500s to 1700s)
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The emergence of Indonesia
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Srivijaya or Sriwijaya was an ancient Malay kingdom on the island of Sumatra, Southeast Asia which influenced much of the Maritime Southeast Asia.^[1] The earliest solid proof of its existence dates from the 7th century; a Chinese monk, I-Tsing, wrote that he visited Srivijaya in 671 for 6 months.^[2][3] The first inscription in which the name Srivijaya appears also dates from the 7th century, namely the Kedukan Bukit Inscription around Palembang in Sumatra, dated 683.^[4] The kingdom ceased to exist between 1200 and 1300 due to various factors, including the expansion of Majapahit.^[1] In Sanskrit, sri means "shining" or "radiant" and vijaya means "victory" or "excellence".^[5]

After Srivijaya fell, it was largely forgotten and so historians had never considered that a large united kingdom could have been present in Southeast Asia. The existence of Srivijaya was only formally suspected in 1918 when French historian George Coedès of the École française d'Extrême-Orient postulated the existence of the empire.^[5] Around 1992 and 1993, Pierre-Yves Manguin proved that the centre of Srivijaya was along the Musi River between Bukit Seguntang and Sabokingking (situated in what is now the province of South Sumatra, Indonesia).^[5]

Contents [hide] 1 Historiography and legacy 2 Formation and growth 3 Vajrayana Buddhism 4 Relationship with regional powers 5 Golden age 6 Decline 7 Commerce 8 List of Rulers 9 References 9.1 Further references 10 Images 11 External links

[edit] Historiography and legacy

There is no continuous knowledge of Srivijaya in Indonesian histories; its forgotten past has been recreated by foreign scholars. No modern Indonesians, not even those of the Palembang area around which the kingdom was based, had heard of Srivijaya until the 1920s, when French scholar George Coedès published his discoveries and interpretations in Dutch and Indonesian-language newspapers.^[6] Coedès noted that the Chinese references to "Sanfoqi", previously read as "Sribhoja", and the inscriptions in Old Malay refer to the same empire.^[7]

Srivijaya became a symbol of early Sumatran greatness, and a great empire to balance Java's Majapahit in the east. In the twentieth century, both empires were referred to by nationalist intellectuals to argue for an Indonesian identity within an Indonesian state prior to the Dutch colonial state.^[6]

Srivijaya and by extension Sumatra had been known by different names to different peoples. The Chinese called it Sanfotsi or San Fo Qi, and at one time there was an even older kingdom of Kantoli that could be considered as the predecessor of Srivijaya.^[8][9] In Sanskrit and Pali, it was referred to as Yavadesh and Javadeh respectively.^[8] The Arabs called it Zabag and the Khmer called it Melayu.^[8] This is another reason why the discovery of Srivijaya was so difficult.^[8] While some of these names are strongly reminiscent of the name of Java, there is a distinct possibility that they may have referred to Sumatra instead.^[10]

[edit] Formation and growth

Little physical evidence of Srivijaya remains.^[11] According to the Kedukan Bukit Inscription, dated 605 Saka (683 AD), the empire of Srivijaya was founded by Dapunta Hyang Çri Yacanaca (Dapunta Hyang Sri Jayanasa). He led 20,000 troops (mainly land troopers and a few hundred ships) from Minanga Tamwan to Jambi and Palembang.

The empire was a coastal trading centre and was a thalassocracy. As such, it did not extend its influence far beyond the coastal areas of the islands of Southeast Asia, with the exception of contributing to the population of Madagascar 3,300 miles to the west. Around the year 500, Srivijayan roots began to develop around present-day Palembang, Sumatra, in modern Indonesia. The empire was organised in three main zones—the estuarine capital region centred on Palembang, the Musi River basin which served as hinterland, and rival estuarine areas capable of forming rival power centres. The areas upstream of the Musi river were rich in various commodities valuable to Chinese traders.^[12] The capital was administered directly by the ruler while the hinterland remained under its own local datus or chiefs, who were organized into a network of allegiance to the Srivijaya maharaja or king. Force was the dominant element in the empire's relations with rival river systems such as the Batang Hari, which centred in Jambi. The ruling lineage intermarried with the Sailendras of Central Java.

Candi Gumpung, a Buddhist temple at Muaro Jambi of Malayu Kingdom, later integrated as one of Srivijaya's important urban center.

Under the leadership of Jayanasa, the kingdom of Malayu became the first kingdom to be integrated into the Srivijayan Empire. This possibly occurred in the 680s. Malayu, also known as Jambi, was rich in gold and was held in high esteem. Srivijaya recognized that the submission of Malayu to them would increase their own prestige.^[13]

Chinese records dated in the late 7th century mention two Sumatran kingdoms as well as three other kingdoms on Java being part of Srivijaya. By the end of the 8th century, many Javanese kingdoms, such as Tarumanagara and Holing, were within the Srivijayan sphere of influence. It has also been recorded that a Buddhist family related to Srivijaya dominated central Java at that time.^[14] The family was probably the Sailendras.^[15] According to the Kota Kapur Inscription, the empire conquered Southern Sumatra as far as Lampung. The empire thus grew to control the trade on the Strait of Malacca, the South China Sea, the Java Sea, and Karimata Strait.

During the same century, Langkasuka on the Malay Peninsula became part of Srivijaya.^[16] Soon after this, Pan Pan and Trambralinga, which were located north of Langkasuka, came under Srivijayan influence. These kingdoms on the peninsula were major trading nations that transported goods across the peninsula's isthmus.

With the expansion to Java as well as the Malay Peninsula, Srivijaya controlled two major trade choke points in Southeast Asia. Some Srivijayan temple ruins are observable in Thailand and Cambodia.

Ruins of the Wat Kaew in Chaiya, dating from Srivijayan times

The area of Chaiya Surat Thani Thailand was already inhabited in prehistoric times by Semang and Malayan tribes. Founded in the 3rd century, until the 13th century the Srivijaya kingdom dominated the Malay Peninsula and much of the island of Java from there. The city Chaiya the name might be derived from its original Malay name "Cahaya" (means 'light', 'gleam', or 'glow'). However some scholars identify Chai-ya came from Sri-vi-ja-ya. It was a regional capital in the Srivijaya kingdom of the 5th to 13th century .Some Thai historians even claim that it was the capital of the kingdom itself for some time, but this is generally disputed. Wiang Sa and Phunphin were another main settlement of that time.

At some point in the 7th century, Cham ports in eastern Indochina started to attract traders. This diverted the flow of trade from Srivijaya. In an effort to divert the flow, the Srivijayan king or maharaja, Dharmasetu, launched various raids against the coastal cities of Indochina. The city of Indrapura by the Mekong River was temporarily controlled from Palembang in the early 8th century.^[15] The Srivijayans continued to dominate areas around present-day Cambodia until the Khmer King Jayavarman II, the founder of the Khmer Empire dynasty, severed the Srivijayan link later in the same century.^[17]

After Dharmasetu, Samaratungga became the next Maharaja of Srivijaya. He reigned as ruler from 792 to 835. Unlike the expansionist Dharmasetu, Samaratungga did not indulge in military expansion but preferred to strengthen the Srivijayan hold of Java. He personally oversaw the construction of Borobudur; the temple was completed in 825, during his reign.^[18]

The influence of the empire had reached Manila by the 10th century. A kingdom under its sphere of influence had already been established there.^[19][20]

By the twelfth century, the kingdom included parts of Sumatra, Ceylon, the Malay Peninsula, Western Java, Sulawesi, the Moluccas, Borneo and the Philippines, most notably the Sulu Archipelago and the Visayas islands (and indeed the latter island group, as well as its population, is named after the empire).^[21]

Srivijaya remained a formidable sea power until the thirteenth century.^[1]

[edit] Vajrayana Buddhism

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A stronghold of Vajrayana Buddhism, Srivijaya attracted pilgrims and scholars from other parts of Asia. These included the Chinese monk Yijing, who made several lengthy visits to Sumatra on his way to study at Nalanda University in India in 671 and 695, and the 11th century Bengali Buddhist scholar Atisha, who played a major role in the development of Vajrayana Buddhism in Tibet. Yijing reports that the kingdom was home to more than a thousand Buddhist scholars; it was in Srivijaya that he wrote his memoir of Buddhism during his own lifetime. Travellers to these islands mentioned that gold coinage was in use on the coasts, but not inland.

[edit] Relationship with regional powers

Pagoda in Srivijaya style in Chaiya, Thailand

Although historical records and archaeological evidence are scarce, it appears that by the seventh century, Srivijaya had established suzerainty over large areas of Sumatra, western Java and much of the Malay Peninsula. Dominating the Malacca and Sunda straits, Srivijaya controlled both the spice route traffic and local trade, charging a toll on passing ships. Serving as an entrepôt for Chinese, Malay, and Indian markets, the port of Palembang, accessible from the coast by way of a river, accumulated great wealth. Envoys travelled to and from China frequently.

The Jambi kingdom was the first rival power centre absorbed into the empire, and thus began the domination of the region through trade and conquest in the 7th and 9th centuries. Jambi's gold mines were a crucial economic resource and may be the origin of the word Suvarnadvipa (island of gold), the Sanskrit name for Sumatra. Srivijaya helped spread the Malay culture throughout Sumatra, the Malay Peninsula, and western Borneo. Srivijaya's influence waned in the 11th century. It was in frequent conflict with, and ultimately subjugated by, Javanese kingdoms, first Singhasari and then Majapahit. The seat of the empire moved to Jambi in the last centuries of Srivijaya's existence.

The Khmer Empire may also have been a tributary in its early stages.

Some historians claim that Chaiya in the Surat Thani province in Southern Thailand was at least temporarily the capital of Srivijaya, but this claim is widely disputed. However, Chaiya was probably a regional centre of the kingdom. The temple of Borom That in Chaiya contains a reconstructed pagoda in Srivijaya style.^{[citation needed]}

Phra Boromathat Chaiya is highlighted by the chedi in Srivijaya style, dating back from the 7th century but elaborately restored. Buddha relics are enshrined in the chedi, in the surrounding chapels are several Buddha statues in Srivijaya style as it was labeled by Prince Damrong in his Collected Inscriptions of Siam, is now attributed to Wat Hua Wiang in Chaiya. Dated to the year 697 of the Mahasakkarat era (i.e. 775 CE), the inscription on a Bai Sema shaped stone tells about the King of Srivijaya having erected three stupas at that site that possibly the one at Wat Phra Borom That. But also be assumed as three stupas at Wat Hua Wiang (Hua Wiang temple), Wat Lhong (Lhong temple) and Wat Kaew (Kaew temple) found in the area of Chaiya ancient city, stand in the direction from north to south on the old sand dune.

After the fall of the Srivijaya in Chaiya, the area was divided into the cities (Mueang) Chaiya, Thatong (now Kanchanadit) and Khirirat Nikhom.

Srivijaya also maintained close relations with the Pala Empire in Bengal, and an 860 inscription records that maharaja Balaputra dedicated a monastery at the Nalanda university in Pala territory. Relations with the Chola dynasty of southern India were initially friendly but deteriorated into actual warfare in the eleventh century.

[edit] Golden age

The graceful golden statue of Avalokiteçvara in Malayu-Srivijayan style, discovered at Rataukapastuo, Muarabulian, Jambi, Indonesia.

After trade disruption at Canton between 820 and 850, the ruler of Jambi was able to assert enough independence to send missions to China in 853 and 871.^{[citation needed]} Jambi's independence coincided with the troubled time when the Sailendran Balaputradewa, expelled from Java, seized the throne of Srivijaya. The new maharaja was able to dispatch a tributary mission to China by 902. Only two years later, the expiring Tang Dynasty conferred a title on a Srivijayan envoy.

In the first half of the tenth century, between the fall of Tang and the rise of Song, there was brisk trade between the overseas world and the Fujian kingdom of Min and the rich Guangdong kingdom of Nan Han. Srivijaya undoubtedly benefited from this, in anticipation of the prosperity it was to enjoy under the early Song. Circa 903, the Muslim writer Ibn Rustah was so impressed with the wealth of Srivijaya's ruler that he declared one would not hear of a king who was richer, stronger or with more revenue. The main urban centres were at Palembang (especially the Bukit Seguntang area), Muara Jambi and Kedah.

[edit] Decline

In 1025, Rajendra Chola, the Chola king from Coromandel in South India, conquered Kedah from Srivijaya and occupied it for some time. The Cholas continued a series of raids and conquests throughout what is now Indonesia and Malaysia for the next 20 years. Although the Chola invasion was ultimately unsuccessful, it gravely weakened the Srivijayan hegemony and enabled the formation of regional kingdoms based, like Kediri, on intensive agriculture rather than coastal and long-distance trade.

Srivijaya's Empire and its neighbors in 900 AD.

Between 1079 and 1088, Chinese records show that Srivijaya sent ambassadors from Jambi and Palembang.^[22] In 1079 in particular, an ambassador from Jambi and Palembang each visited China. Jambi sent two more ambassadors to China in 1082 and 1088.^[22] This suggests that the centre of Srivijaya frequently shifted between the two major cities during that period.^[22] The Chola expedition as well as changing trade routes weakened Palembang, allowing Jambi to take the leadership of Srivijaya from the 11th century on.^[23]

According to a Chinese source in the book of Chu-fan-chi^[24] written around 1178, Chou-Ju-Kua describe that in Southeast Asia archipelago there was two most powerful and richest kingdoms; Srivijaya and Java (Kediri). In Java he founds that the people adhere two kinds of religions: Buddhism and the religions of Brahmins (Hinduism), while the people of Srivijaya adhere Buddhism. The people of Java are brave and short tempered, dare to put a fight. Their favourite pastimes was cockfighting and pig fighting. The currency was made from the mixture of copper, silver, and tin.

The book of Chu-fan-chi mentioned that Java was ruled by a maharaja, that rules several colonies: Pai-hua-yuan (Pacitan), Ma-tung (Medang), Ta-pen (Tumapel, now Malang), Hi-ning (Dieng), Jung-ya-lu (Hujung Galuh, now Surabaya), Tung-ki (Jenggi, West Papua), Ta-kang (Sumba), Huang-ma-chu (Southwest Papua), Ma-li (Bali), Kulun (Gurun, identified as Gorong or Sorong in West Papua or an island in Nusa Tenggara), Tan-jung-wu-lo (Tanjungpura in Borneo), Ti-wu (Timor), Pingya-i (Banggai in Sulawesi), and Wu-nu-ku (Maluku).

About Srivijaya, Chou-Ju-Kua reported that Kien-pi (Kampe, in northern Sumatra) with armed forced rebellion has liberated themselves from Srivijaya, thus has coronated their own king. The same fate goes to some Srivijaya's colonies at Malay Peninsula that liberated themselves from Srivijaya domination. However Srivijaya still the mightiest and wealthiest state in western part of archipelago. Srivijaya's colony are: Pong-fong (Pahang), Tong-ya-nong (Trengganu), Ling-ya-ssi-kia (Langkasuka), Kilan-tan (Kelantan), Fo-lo-an (?), Ji-lo-t'ing (Jelutong), Ts'ien-mai (?), Pa-t'a (Batak), Tan-ma-ling (Tambralinga, Ligor or Nakhon Si Thammarat), Kia-lo-hi (Grahi, northern part of Malay peninsula), Pa-lin-fong (Palembang), Sin-t'o (Sunda), Lan-wu-li (Lamuri at Aceh), and Si-lan (Sailan?) ^[25]. According to this source in early 13th century Srivijaya still ruled Sumatra, Malay peninsula, and western Java (Sunda). About Sunda, the book describe it further that the port of Sunda (Sunda Kelapa) is really good and strategic, pepper from Sunda is among the best quality. People work on agriculture and their house are build on wooden piles (rumah panggung). However the country was invested by robbers and thieves. In sum, this Chinese source from early 13th century suggested that the Indonesian archipelago was ruled by two great kingdoms, western part was under Srivijaya's rule, while eastern part was under Kediri domination.

In 1288, Singhasari, the successor of Kediri in Java, conquered Palembang, Jambi as well as much of Srivijaya during the Pamalayu expedition.

In the year 1293, Majapahit ruled much of Sumatra as the successor of Singhasari. Prince Adityawarman was given responsibilities over Sumatra in 1347 by Hayam Wuruk, the fourth king of Majapahit. The rebellion in 1377 was squashed by Majapahit but it left the area of southern Sumatra in chaos and desolation.

In the following years, sedimentation on the Musi river estuary cut the kingdom's capital off from direct sea access. The strategic disadvantage crippled the trade in the Kingdom's capital. As the decline continued, Islam made its way to the Aceh region of Sumatra, spreading through contacts with Arab and Indian traders. By the late 13th century, the kingdom of Pasai in northern Sumatra converted to Islam. At the same time, Srivijaya was briefly a tributary state of the Khmer empire and later the Sukhothai kingdom. The last inscription, on which a crown prince, Ananggavarman, son of Adityawarman, is mentioned, dates from 1374.

Several attempts to revive Srivijaya were made by the fleeing princes of Srivijaya. In 1324, a prince of Srivijaya origin, Sri Maharaja Sang Utama Parameswara Batara Sri Tribuwana (Sang Nila Utama) founded the ancient Singapore (Temasek). He maintained control over Temasek for 48 years. Confirmed as ruler over Temasek by an envoy of the Chinese Emperor ca 1366. He was succeeded by his son Paduka Sri Pekerma Wira Diraja (1372 – 1386) and grandson, Paduka Seri Rana Wira Kerma (1386 – 1399). In 1401, his great grandson, Paduka Sri Maharaja Parameswara was expelled from Temasek by a Majapahit invasion. He later headed north and founded Sultanate of Malacca in 1402^[26]. The Sultanate of Malacca succeeded Srivijaya Empire as a Malay political entity of the archipelago.^[27][28]

[edit] Commerce

In the world of commerce, Srivijaya rapidly rose to be a far-flung empire controlling the two passages between India and China, namely the Sunda Strait from Palembang and the Malacca straits from Kedah. Arab accounts state that the empire of the maharaja was so vast that in two years the swiftest vessel could not travel round all its islands, which produced camphor, aloes, cloves, sandal-wood, nutmegs, cardamom and crubebs, ivory, gold and tin, making the maharaja as rich as any king in the Indies.^{[citation needed]}

[edit] List of Rulers

Part of History of Thailand
Prehistoric Thailand
Early history of Thailand
Initial states of Thailand (3 BCE–1238) Suvarnabhumi Central Thailand Dvaravati Lavo Supannabhum Northern Thailand Yonok Singhanavati Ngoenyang Hariphunchai Southern Thailand Pan Pan Raktamaritika Langkasuka Srivijaya Tambralinga Sri Thamnakorn
Sukhothai Kingdom (1238–1448)
Ayutthaya Kingdom (1351–1767)
Thonburi Kingdom (1768–1782)
Rattanakosin Kingdom (1782–1932)
Kingdom of Thailand Military rule (1932–1973) Democracy (1973–present)
Regional history Isan Lanna Nakhon Si Thammarat Phitsanulok
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The Maharajas of Srivijaya^[29]

Date	King's name	Capital	Stone inscription or embassies to China and events
683	Jayanasa	Palembang	Kedukan Bukit (683), Talang Tuo (684), and Kota Kapur inscriptions Malayu conquest, Central Java conquest
702	Indravarman		Embassies 702-716, 724
728	Rudra vikraman or Lieou-t'eng-wei-kong		Embassy 728-748
No information for the period 728-775
790	Dharmasetu	Nakhon Si Thammarat (Ligor)	Vat Sema Muang
775	Sangramadhananjaya or Vishnu	Java Ligor	Arabian text (790) Starts to build Borobudur in 770, conquer South Cambodia
792	Samaratungga	Java	802 lost Cambodia 825 completion of Borobudur
835	Balaputra Sri Kaluhunan	Java- Palembang	Lost central Java, Nalanda Inscription (860)
No information for the period 835-960
960	Sri Uda Haridana or Çri Udayadityavarman	Palembang	Embassy 960
961	Sri Wuja or Çri Udayaditya	Palembang	Embassies 961-962
No information for the period 961-980
980	Hia-Tche	Palembang	Embassies 980-983
988	Sri Culamanivarmadeva	Palembang	Embassy 988-992-1003 Javanese attack of Palembang, building of temple for Chinese Emperor, Tanjore Inscription or Leiden Inscription (1044), gift of village by Raja-raja I
1008	Sri Maravijayottungga	Palembang	Embassy 1008
1017	Sumatrabhumi	Palembang	Embassy 1017
1025	Sangramavijayottungga	Palembang	Captured by Rajendra Chola Chola Inscription on the temple of Rajaraja, Tanjore
1028	Sri Deva	Palembang	Embassy 1028
No information for the period 1028-1064
1064	Dharmavira	Solok, Jambi
No information for the period 1064-1156
1156	Sri Maharaja	Palembang	Embassy 1156
No information for the period 1156-1178
1178	Trailokaraja Maulibhusana Varmadeva	Jambi	Embassy 1178 Bronze Buddha Chaiya 1183
No information for the period 1183-1251

Selengkapnya...

Lexus LFA

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Lexus LFA

Manufacturer	Lexus
Parent company	Toyota Motor Corporation
Also called	Lexus LF-A (concept)
Production	Dec 2010 – Dec 2012 (500 total, 20 monthly)
Assembly	Motomachi, Toyota City, Japan
Class	Sports car Racing car
Body style(s)	2-door coupé 2-door roadster
Layout	Front-mid-engine, rear-mid-transaxle
Engine(s)	4.8 L 1LR-GUE V10
Transmission(s)	6-speed Automated Sequential Gearbox
Wheelbase	2,605 mm (102.6 in)
Length	4,505 mm (177.4 in)
Width	1,895 mm (74.6 in)
Height	1,220 mm (48 in)
Curb weight	3263-3483 lbs
Designer	Haruhiko Tanahashi

The Lexus LFA is a two-seat exotic sports coupe produced by Lexus as a concept car, "halo" vehicle, racing prototype, and production model.^[1] It is the second model in the F marque line of performance vehicles from Lexus, following the IS F. Three concept versions have been shown, each debuting at the North American International Auto Show with the LF-A designation as part of the LF Series concept line. The first LF-A concept premiered in 2005, followed in 2007 by a second LF-A with a more completely furnished interior and exterior. The third version of the LF-A, a roadster model, premiered in 2008. The production model, trademarked LFA,^[2] was shown at the Tokyo Motor Show in October 2009.^[3]

The production Lexus LFA features a new V10 engine and a carbon fiber-reinforced polymer (CFRP) body. The use of CFRP materials, which account for 65 percent of the LFA's body composition,^[4] is to reduce overall weight for improved performance. The LFA is scheduled to go into production in late 2010, with a projected run of 500 hand-built vehicles at an estimated base price of $US350,000-375,000.^[5][6] A circuit-tuned variant is scheduled for 2012.^[7]

Contents [hide] 1 Development 1.1 2005–2006 1.2 2007–2008 1.3 2009 2 Production 3 Overview 3.1 Engine 3.2 Transmission 3.3 Chassis 3.4 Exterior 3.5 Interior 4 Performance 5 Motorsport 5.1 2008 5.2 2009 6 Special models 7 References 8 External links

[edit] Development

[edit] 2005–2006

The LF-A began development as a supercar project codenamed P280, which was intended to showcase the performance capabilities of Toyota Motor Corporation and its Lexus marque.^[8] In January 2005, the first LF-A concept premiered at the North American International Auto Show in Detroit, Michigan as a design study with no plans for production. However, prototypes of the LF-A had been spotted regularly undergoing testing at Nürburgring since October 2004,^[9] the famous motorsport race track in Nürburg, Germany.^[10] Numerous test vehicles had been equipped with automatic retractable rear wings, and carbon ceramic brake discs.^[11]

The first Lexus LF-A concept

The first LF-A concept had an overall length of 173.2 inches (4,400 mm), five inches shorter than the Porsche 911 Turbo (996) while its wheelbase measured 101.6 inches (2,580 mm), or about nine inches longer.^[12] The first LF-A was nearly 48 inches (1,200 mm) in height about equal to the Ferrari F430 with a width of 73.2 in (1,859 mm).^[12] The concept name referred to Lexus Future-Advance.^[13] The concept featured a glass roof and side cameras mounted in the side mirrors. Twin rear radiators were installed behind the rear wheels, and visible behind large screens. The rear bumper featured a triple exhaust placed in an inverted triangle formation. The wheels were shaped like turbines, and air-scoops were placed on the C-pilllars.^[12] The overall design was the work of car stylists led by Lexus Design general manager Kengo Matsumoto.^[8]

Following enthusiastic public reaction for the LF-A concept on the autoshow circuit, development continued with a greater emphasis on a possible production model.^[14] The LF-A was reported to draw engineering resources from Formula 1 race car development, with Toyota along with Ferrari being the only companies producing their own F1 engines and chassis designs.^[8] Concurrently, Lexus was preparing for the launch of its long-rumored F marque series of performance vehicles, with a production LF-A being a possible future member of this lineup. Reports in 2006 suggested that the LF-A concept car had received the green-light for production,^[15] however these reports were not officially confirmed.^[16]

The second Lexus LF-A concept

[edit] 2007–2008

In January 2007, a restyled LF-A concept car premiered alongside the first production F marque vehicle, the IS F sports sedan. The second LF-A concept featured a more aerodynamic exterior, a near-production interior, and F marque emblems. Later that year, Lexus GB director Steve Settle indicated plans for a V10 and hybrid version of the LF-A.^[17] The hybrid version, combining a petrol engine with electric motors, would likely feature a V8 powertrain similar to that designed for the Lexus LS 600h L. LF-A test mules continued to be spotted at the Nürburgring, including early models with a large, fixed rear wing.^[14] In December 2007, Auto Express reported that the LF-A had set an unofficial 7:24 lap record at the Nürburgring.^[18][19]

The Lexus LF-A Roadster concept

In January 2008, Lexus displayed a roadster version of the LF-A concept car designated LF-A Roadster or LF-AR at the North American International Auto Show. Initial specifications for the roadster were a V10 engine under 5.0 L with over 500 hp (373 kW) and a top speed of over 200 mph (320 km/h).^[20] Automotive photographers capturing the LF-A in various test guises had photographed a disguised drop-top test model, dubbed LF-A Spyder, on the Nürburgring as early as October 2005.^[21] After its debut at the 2008 North American International Auto Show, the LF-A Roadster was also shown at the 2008 Pebble Beach Concours d'Elegance, the 2008 Geneva Motor Show, the United States Open Championship tournament, and at Lexus exhibits in Japan. Media reports uncovered a LFA trademark filing in December 2008, with the concept LF-A name dropping its hyphen to become LFA for the production model.^[2]

The LF-A concept at the 2007 Tokyo Motor Show

The second LF-A concepts had an overall length of 175.6 inches (4,460 mm), and a wheelbase of 102.3 inches (2,600 mm); height remained the same as the prior concept, while width grew to 74.6 inches (1,890 mm).^[22] While the original LF-A had been strictly a concept model, the second concept's design reflecting engineering analysis for possible production.^[23] Revised styling and improved aerodynamics were aimed at improving the coupe's overall top speed.^[23] The reshaped exterior featured smoother lines with additional detailing, and more curved surfaces. The aft radiator cooling vents were retained, but integrated into the rear fascia, and the lower side and front air intakes were restyled, along with the forward fascia and headlamps.^[14] The second LF-A concept and accompanying LF-A Roadster were also equipped with a retractable rear wing for improved handling at speed and a two-seat interior with a two-tone color scheme.

Aft view of the LF-A Roadster concept

[edit] 2009

On August 5, 2009, Toyota's new CEO, Akio Toyoda, publicly confirmed production of the LF-A in his speech at a conference held at the Center for Automotive Research in the United States.^[24] The production vehicles were expected to carry V10 engines,^[25][26] putting the car in market competition with the Lamborghini Gallardo, Ferrari F430, the Porsche 911 (997), and the Chevrolet Corvette C6 ZR1. Pricing was estimated at over $225,000,^[27] and close to $400,000.^[28] In the same month, reports surfaced that coupe would be released as the LF-L to signify its appearances at Le Mans and to draw on its pre-production racing development.^[29] Other possible names floated in the automotive press included the Lexus GT-F,^[30] and Lexus SS550.^[31] In September 2009, reports in Japanese automotive magazines indicated that the 4.8 L V10 engine for the LF-A would carry a 1LR designation.^[32] A report in Evo in 2009 also indicated that the LF-A V10 engine was being considered for use in the upcoming Lotus Esprit.^[33]

The production Lexus LFA at the 2009 Tokyo Motor Show

On October 21, 2009, the production Lexus LFA was unveiled on the first press day of the 41st biennial Tokyo Motor Show.^[6] The vehicle was introduced by Akio Toyoda at a press conference, in which it was disclosed that the vehicle would be limited to 500 production copies. The vehicle carried the same designation as the concepts, LFA, but without the hyphen. The production designation reportedly stood for Lexus F-Series Apex.^[34] The LFA was shown as the final vehicle of the press conference, following the LF-Ch hybrid concept. Pricing details at the show was estimated at $375,000.^[6]

The production announcement for the LFA supercar marked the 20th anniversary of the launch of Lexus.^[35] Given the high cost of construction and limited production, analysts do not expect LFA sales to be profitable.^[6] However, the coupe is intended to serve as a testbed for new car technologies, including carbon fiber mass-production, and related performance vehicle development.^[36] At its debut, a circuit-ready model was also indicated for 2012 release.^[37]

[edit] Production

Lexus began taking orders for the LFA supercar on October 23, 2009. Buyers will be selectively chosen by Lexus in the second quarter of 2010.^[38] Production will begin in December 2010 as a 2011 model. Only 500 total LFA models will be made worldwide, with only 20 produced each month. Each car will be custom ordered to the customer's specifications, and will cost an estimated $350,000 - $375,000 USD, depending on options and customization.^[39]

Forward view of the LFA, to be built in 500 units

Following the LFA's release at the Tokyo Motor Show, Lexus unveiled a website with a 'LFA configurator' which allowed users to select exterior and interior colors, brake caliper colors, seats, steering wheel leather, and other interior designs.^[40][41] In total, there are over 30 billion possible configurations.^[41] Each LFA will be hand-built by a dedicated production team of engineers and specialists at Toyota's Motomatchi plant in Aichi, Japan.^[42]

During LFA production, each vehicle will receive a plaque which is individually numbered, indicating the unit's place in the production run. Each LFA V10 engine will also bear the signature of the specialist who assembled it.^[42] With 20 units produced monthly, production of the entire LFA run will last from December 2010 to December 2012.

[edit] Overview

[edit] Engine

LFA 1LR-GUE V10 display model

The Lexus LFA is powered by a 72° 4.8-liter V10 engine equipped with dual VVT-i carrying the 1LR-GUE designation with a maximum output of 552 bhp (412 kW) delivered at 8700 rpm. Its maximum torque output of 354 lb-ft arrives at 6800 rpm, 90 percent of which is available from 3700 rpm. The engine, like the Ferrari 458 Italia, redlines at 9000 rpm, but with a fuel cutoff set at 9500 rpm^[43] and is constructed using forged aluminum pistons, forged titanium connecting rods, and solid titanium valves. Dry sump lubrication prevents engine oil starvation through high speed corners and reduces the engine's center of gravity. Air is fed directly from beneath the hood through a visible slit passing into a dual stage variable intake manifold and then into 10 individual throttle bodies before finally exiting from a dual stage titanium muffler.

Lexus LFA engine bay

The LFA's engineers attempted to make the engine to sound like that of a Formula One car with rapid revs while at the same time maintaining typical Lexus reliability and vibration control. By selecting a V10 engine over an equivalent displacement V8 engine reciprocating mass is reduced allowing for more rapid engine response. Lexus claims their engine can rev from idle to its redline in 0.6 seconds and an analog tachometer needle could not accurately track the LFA's changes in engine speeds. This necessitated the use of digital tach which can instantly display rpms. The engine reportedly weighs less than the manufacturer's own 3.5-liter 2GR-FE V6 engine.

	Lexus LFA 1LR-GUE V10 LFA engine revving
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The powerplant gives the LFA a power-to-weight ratio of 5.9 lb/hp and enables it to reach a top speed of around 202 mph (325 km/h).^[44] Like the IS F Yamaha co-developed the engine cylinder heads. The engine complies with Euro V emissions. On the LF-A, the V10 is installed with a front mid-engine placement.^[45] According to Chief Engineer Haruhiko Tanahashi a front engine layout was selected instead of a mid engine layout as it is inherently more forgiving dynamically affording less experienced drivers with a wider safety net.^[46]

The LFA front counter gear box, torque tube and transaxle

[edit] Transmission

The gearbox itself is a six-speed Automated Sequential Gearbox (electrohydraulic transmission) operated with paddle-shifters developed and constructed in-house by Toyota. The driver can select from four settings, auto, normal, sport and wet. In the sport mode, the manufacturer quotes minimum upshift times of 200 ms. According to Tanahashi a dual-clutch transmission was tested but the design team felt gear changes were overly smooth, resembling that of a traditional automatic and preferred more abrupt and mechanically engaging shifts. However the auto mode and low speed performance suffer as a result.^[47] A Torsen limited slip differential is also applied on the LFA,^[3] and a launch control system is available.^[41] The transmission gear ratios are as follows:^[48]

LFA speedometer TFT

Rev indicator menu

Gear	1	2	3	4	5	6	Reverse	Final Drive
Ratio	3.231	2.188	1.609	1.233	0.970	0.795	3.587	3.417

[edit] Chassis

The Lexus LFA's frame is made from an in-house designed and manufactured carbon fiber-reinforced polymer (CFRP) center monocoque with aluminum front and rear subframes. The subframes, which can be removed and replaced minimizing potential repair costs, are joined to the monocoque using a newly developed aluminum flanged collar designed to create a stronger joint.^[3] According to the manufacturer, the quality of the CRFP material matches that of aeronautical grades and is weaved by a laser monitored circular loom, one of two in the world.^[36] Overall 65% of the vehicle's total body mass is comprised of CFRP material while the remaining 35% is aluminum.^[4] Manufacturer data indicates that the use of CFRP saves 100 kg (220 lbs) over equivalent aluminum materials.

LFA chassis cutaway display

An electric power steering rack with a 14.3:1 gear ratio is used while the front suspension utilizes a double-wishbone arrangement, and a multi-link arrangement at the rear with coil-over dampers at all wheels. The dampers are a fixed monotube design. The LFA further features six-piston front and four-piston rear Brembo monobloc brake calipers with 390 mm (15.4 in) front and 360 mm (14.2 in) rear carbon ceramic discs controlled by Toyota's Electronically Controlled Brake brake-by-wire system. Forged 20-inch BBS wheels fitted with 265 mm (10.4 in) front and 305 mm (12.0 in) rear Bridgestone next-generation Pontenza tires are standard.^[45]

LFA carbon ceramic disc brakes

To maintain a near ideal weight distribution, a rear transaxle is used, in addition to the mounting of the fuel tank ahead of the rear axle and the radiators at the rear. Overall 48% of the LFA's mass is distributed along the front wheels with 52% at the rear.^[49] The 73 liter fuel tank itself saddles the exhaust system keeping weight centered along the left-right axis. The engine is connected to the transaxle via a rigid carbon-fiber torque tube which the exhaust system runs directly below.^[3] This stacked driveshaft and exhaust arrangement decreases the width of the center tunnel allowing for centrally located seating.

Side profile view of Lexus LFA in matte black

[edit] Exterior

The production Lexus LFA has an overall length of 177.4 inches (4,510 mm), while its wheelbase measures 102.6 inches (2,610 mm), with a height of 48 inches (1,200 mm) and width of 74.6 in (1,895 mm).^[48] Compared to the prior 2007–2008 concepts, the production model is nearly 2 inches (51 mm) inches longer, with identical width, height, and nearly same wheelbase dimensions.

The two-seat LFA cockpit

The LFA body features sharp edges and cutoffs for improved aerodynamic performance, made possible by the carbon fiber body.^[38] The body was designed with an emphasis on downforce. There are air scoops located over the rear fenders which feed the aft-mounted radiators. The speed-sensitive rear wing incorporates a Gurney flap and deploys at speeds over 50 mph.^[38] With the wing retracted the LFA's body has a drag coefficient of C_d 0.31.^[38]

The production LFA interior, customizable to owner specification

[edit] Interior

The LFA interior incorporates carbon fiber, leather, alcantara, and metallic surfaces. There are two bucket seats, and Lexus' Remote Touch controller interface. The instrument display is a digital speedometer with color-changing background, size-changing numbers, and side-appearing submenus.^[38] The LFA features a new driver and passenger seat-belt airbag design^[38] increases similar to the S-Class ESF safety concept car. The steering wheel feaures a right-mounted start button, and alloy paddle-shifters.^[38] A 12-speaker Mark Levinson sound system with compact lightweight components was also developed for the interior.^[50]

[edit] Performance

Official preliminary specifications for the Lexus LFA are as follows:^[48]

Engine type	1LR-GUE 72° V10	Transmission	6-speed ASG
Valvetrain	DOHC 4-valves/cylinder, dual VVT-i	Redline	9000 rpm (rev limiter 9500 rpm)
Displacement	4,805 cc (293.2 cu in)	Curb weight	1,480 kg (3,263 lb)
Bore x Stroke	88 mm × 99 mm (3.5 in × 3.9 in)	Power-to-weight	5.9 lb/hp
Compression Ratio	12.0:1	0-100 km/h (62 mph)	3.7 sec.[48]
Power	412 kW (560.2 PS; 552.5 hp) @ 8700 rpm	0-60 mph (97 km/h)	3.6 sec.[35] (w/o launch control)[41]
Torque	480 N·m (354.0 ft·lbf) @ 6800 rpm	Top speed	325 km/h (202 mph)[48]

[edit] Motorsport

[edit] 2008

A Lexus LF-A prototype was entered on 10 May 2008 on the Nürburgring 4 hour VLN endurance race where it surprisingly won the engine close-to-production SP8 class^[51] with 6 entrants, as all others, including a Porsche 997 Turbo and Aston Martin Vantage, failed to finish. The best lap time on the 24,4 km version was 9:06;^[51] by comparison, the SP7 class Porsche GT3-RSR, which did not finish the race, had a fastest lap of 8:44;^[51] the LF-A's time was about on par with Cup-GT3. This resulted in finishing 77th^[52] overall among over 200 teams.

The Lexus LF-A prototype at the Nürburgring in 2008

Lexus also took part in the 24 Hours Nürburgring^[53] on 24/25 May 2008, with four Japanese drivers including Akira Iida leading the team. The LF-A was involved in a crash just prior to the race and was hurriedly repaired in two hours to make the race.^[54] As car #14, ^[55] it qualified 27th^[56] among 223 cars, and finished 7th in the SP8 class of 11 entrants, and 121st overall, with a best lap average speed of 163 km/h (101 mph), compared to 175 km/h (109 mph) of the fastest cars.

[edit] 2009

On 4 April 2009, a LF-A and a Lexus IS F entered by Gazoo Racing (raced in 2007 and 2008) finished 1^st and 2^nd in the SP8 class^[57] in the ADAC-Westfalenfahrt VLN 4h endurance race, beating out 3 other entrants, a Gallardo, a Corvette and a R8, whom all failed to complete the race. In winning its second VLN 4h event, the LF-A increased its fastest lap time, with one driver completing 8:41 laps both in practice and in the race;^[58] by comparison, the fastest overall race laps were 8:27 by a Dodge Viper and a Porsche 997 Cup S, both of the new SP9 class, which is close to FIA-GT3. The LF-A was subsequently entered into the 24 Hours Nürburgring race for the manufacturer stated purpose of obtaining feedback for fine-tuning production versions^[59] along with training of support technicians.^[60] Gazoo registered two LF-As and a single IS F in the SP8 class (4000cc to 6200cc), as the LF-A racecars were powered by a 4.8-liter (4805cc) V10 engine with a 9000 rpm redline.^[61][62]

The 2009 24h Nürburgring race car #15 in Goodwood

At the 24 Hours Nürburgring endurance race held on May 23/24, the #15 LF-A^[63] driven by Jochen Krumbach, Armin Hahne, Andre Lotterer, and Hiromu Naruse achieved sub-9min laps and a best time of 8:50.458, which was the fastest time in the SP8 class,^[64] with a best lap speed of 172 km/h (107 mph);^[64] the fastest times by the SP9 class race leaders were in the 8:40 range with a best lap speed of 176 km/h (109 mph).^[64] About 90 minutes from race completion, the #15 LF-A experienced a separated driveshaft and a fire which poured white smoke from the vehicle's rear section.^[65] The #14 LF-A completed the race and was ranked 4th in its class and 87th overall,^[64][66] behind the 3rd ranked #16 IS F^[67] During the early portions of the race the #14 LF-A recorded its peak position of 14^th overall.^[68][69] One of the drivers of the #14 car was Toyota's new CEO Akio Toyoda, who also met Aston Martin's President at the race before deciding to build the Aston Martin Cygnet together.^[70]

[edit] Special models

Lexus LF-A Salone Milano 2005 concept model

In April 2005, Lexus presented a sculptural model of the original LF-A concept at that year's Milan Design Week exhibition in Milan, Italy. Part of the marque's introductory display of its L-finesse design theme, the full-size LF-A model was presented next to a production Lexus GS model, in a design space produced by painter Hiroshi Senju, designer Junya Ishigami, and architect Kazuyo Sejima.^[71] The sculpted LF-A model followed the first introduction of the LF-A concept at the North American International Auto Show in January of that year. In contrast with the production GS sedan it shared the display space with, the LF-A model did not have interior access.

Lexus LFA Crystallised Wind

In April 2009, Lexus presented an acrylic glass sculpture LFA model, called 'Crystallised Wind', at that year's Milan Design Week exhibition at the Museo della Permanente art gallery in Milan. Commissioned in partnership with architect Sou Fujimoto, the full-sized LFA crystal sculpture had a transparent appearance, allowing viewers to see the engine, chassis, interior, and other internal components.^[72] Although closely resembling the 2007 coupe concept, design elements on the LFA Crystallised Wind model differed from previous iterations of the coupe, with five-spoke wheels, different headlamp shapes, and other separate details. The vehicle was presented along with a collection of accessories, gadgets, and styling products all produced from the same acrylic materials used in the Crystallised Wind model.^[73]

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